Social Media and Change in Psychological Distress Over Time: The Role of Social Causation

The Impact of Internet and Social Media Use on Well-Being: A Longitudinal Analysis of Adolescents Across Nine Years

Abstract The present research examines the longitudinal average impact of frequency of use of Internet and social networking sites (SNS) on subjective well-being of adolescents in Germany. Based on five-wave panel data that cover a period of nine years, we disentangle between-person and within-person effects of media use on depressive symptomatology and life satisfaction as indicators of subjective well-being. Additionally, we control for confounders such as TV use, self-esteem, and satisfaction with friends. We found that frequency of Internet use in general and use of SNS in particular is not substantially related subjective well-being. The explanatory power of general Internet use or SNS use to predict between-person differences or within-person change in subjective well-being is close to zero. TV use, a potentially confounding variable, is negatively related to satisfaction with life, but it does not affect depressive symptomatology. However, this effect is too small to be of practical relevance.

Social Media and Depression Symptoms: a Meta-Analysis

Social Networking Sites (SNS) have close to 3 billion users worldwide. Recently, however, SNS have come under media scrutiny for their potential association with depression. Two previous meta-analyses failed to find evidence for a robust concurrent association between SNS use and depression symptoms. However, these analyses focused primarily on the time spent using SNS. The current meta-analysis is the first to consider the multi-dimensional nature of SNS use, and examines separately the quantitative associations of depression symptoms to SNS use in three types of SNS studies examining three distinct constructs of SNS use: time spent using SNS, intensity of SNS use, and problematic SNS use. Sixty-two studies (N = 451, 229) met inclusion criteria. Depression symptoms were significantly, but weakly, associated with time spent using SNS (r = 0.11) and intensity of SNS use (r = 0.09). However, the association of depression symptoms to problematic SNS use was moderate (r = 0.29), was significantly higher than for time spent using SNS (Qbetween = 35.85, p < 0.001) or intensity of SNS use (Qbetween = 13.95, p < 0.001), and was not significantly moderated by age, gender, year of study publication, or mode of recruitment. These results suggest that future research examining causal models of the relation of SNS use and depression, as well as research on intervention and prevention, should focus in more detail on individuals who are engaging in a pattern of problematic SNS use.

The Longitudinal Association Between Social-Media Use and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescents and Young Adults: An Empirical Reply to Twenge et al. (2018)

Research by Twenge, Joiner, Rogers, and Martin has indicated that there may be an association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents. However, because of the cross-sectional nature of this work, the relationship among these variables over time remains unclear. Thus, in this longitudinal study we examined the associations between social-media use and depressive symptoms over time using two samples: 594 adolescents ( M age = 12.21) who were surveyed annually for 2 years, and 1,132 undergraduate students ( M age = 19.06) who were surveyed annually for 6 years. Results indicate that among both samples, social-media use did not predict depressive symptoms over time for males or females. However, greater depressive symptoms predicted more frequent social-media use only among adolescent girls. Thus, while it is often assumed that social-media use may lead to depressive symptoms, our results indicate that this assumption may be unwarranted.

Does Using Social Media Jeopardize Well-Being? The Importance of Separating Within- From Between-Person Effects

Social networking sites (SNS) are frequently criticized as a driving force behind rising depression rates. Yet empirical studies exploring the associations between SNS use and well-being have been predominantly cross-sectional, while the few existing longitudinal studies provided mixed results. We examined prospective associations between SNS use and multiple indicators of well-being in a nationally representative sample of Dutch adults ( N ∼ 10,000), comprising six waves of annual measures of SNS use and well-being. We used an analytic method that estimated prospective effects of SNS use and well-being while also estimating time-invariant between-person associations between these variables. Between individuals, SNS use was associated with lower well-being. However, within individuals, year-to-year changes in SNS use were not prospectively associated with changes in well-being (or vice versa). Overall, our analyses suggest that the conclusions about the causal impact of social media on rising mental health problems in the population might be premature.

20 shared papers

Hall JA Ten myths about the effect of social media use on well-being J. Med. Internet Res. • Dissing AS et al. Smartphone interactions and mental well-being in young adults: A longitudinal study based on objective high-resolution smartphone data Scand. J. Public Health • Beyens I et al. The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent Sci. Rep. • Valkenburg PM Social media use and well-being: What we know and what we need to know Curr. Opin. Psychol. • Panova T et al. Is smartphone addiction really an addiction? J. Behav. Addict. • Heffer T et al. The longitudinal association between social-media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: An empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018) Clin. Psychol. Sci. • Stavrova O et al. Does using social media jeopardize well-being? The importance of separating within- from between-person effects Soc. Psychol. Personal. Sci. • Lawrence D et al. Reciprocal relationships between trajectories of loneliness and screen media use during adolescence J. Child Fam. Stud. • Cunningham S et al. Social media and depression symptoms: A meta-analysis Res. Child Adolesc. Psychopathol. • Hall JA et al. Experimentally manipulating social media abstinence: results of a four-week diary study Media Psychol. • Panayiotou M et al. Time spent on social media among the least influential factors in adolescent mental health: preliminary results from a panel network analysis Nat. Ment. Health • Johannes N et al. Objective, subjective, and accurate reporting of social media use: No evidence that daily social media use correlates with personality traits, motivational states, or well-being Technol. Mind Behav. • Johannes N et al. No effect of different types of media on well-being Sci. Rep. • Meier A et al. Computer-mediated communication, social media, and mental health: A conceptual and empirical meta-review Communic. Res. • Bruce LD et al. Loneliness in the United States: A 2018 national panel survey of demographic, structural, cognitive, and behavioral characteristics Am. J. Health Promot. • Schemer C et al. The impact of Internet and social media use on well-being: A longitudinal analysis of adolescents across nine years J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. • Hall JA et al. Two tests of social displacement through social media use Inf. Commun. Soc. • Hampton KN Social media and change in psychological distress over time: The role of social causation J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. • Steinsbekk S et al. The new social landscape: Relationships among social media use, social skills, and offline friendships from age 10-18 years Comput. Human Behav. • Odgers CL The great rewiring: is social media really behind an epidemic of teenage mental illness? Nature

Reciprocal Relationships between Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms and Screen Media Use during Adolescence

Adolescents are constantly connected with each other and the digital landscape through a myriad of screen media devices. Unprecedented access to the wider world and hence a variety of activities, particularly since the introduction of mobile technology, has given rise to questions regarding the impact of this changing media environment on the mental health of young people. Depressive symptoms are one of the most common disabling health issues in adolescence and although research has examined associations between screen use and symptoms of depression, longitudinal investigations are rare and fewer still consider trajectories of change in symptoms. Given the plethora of devices and normalisation of their use, understanding potential longitudinal associations with mental health is crucial. A sample of 1,749 (47% female) adolescents (10–17 years) participated in six waves of data collection over two years. Symptoms of depression, time spent on screens, and on separate screen activities (social networking, gaming, web browsing, TV/passive) were self-reported. Latent growth curve modelling revealed three trajectories of depressive symptoms (low-stable, high-decreasing, and low-increasing) and there were important differences across these groups on screen use. Some small, positive associations were evident between depressive symptoms and later screen use, and between screen use and later depressive symptoms. However, a Random Intercept Cross Lagged Panel Model revealed no consistent support for a longitudinal association. The study highlights the importance of considering differential trajectories of depressive symptoms and specific forms of screen activity to understand these relationships.

Two tests of social displacement through social media use

The present manuscript presents two tests of the hypothesis that social media use decreases social interaction, leading to decreased well-being. Study 1 used the Longitudinal Study of American Yout...

Increases in Serious Psychological Distress among Ontario Students between 2013 and 2017: Assessing the Impact of Time Spent on Social Media

Objective: The objective of the current research was to examine the association between time spent on social media and serious psychological distress between 2013 and 2017, a period when the rates of both were trending upward. Methods: The current study analyzed population-based data from 3 waves of the Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey ( N = 15,398). Multivariate logistic regression models were used to examine the association between time spent on social media and serious psychological distress controlling for theoretically relevant covariates. Interactions were tested to assess whether the association changed over time. Results: The prevalence of serious psychological distress increased from 10.9% in 2013 to 16.8% in 2017 concomitantly with substantial increases in social media usage, especially at the highest levels. In the multivariate context, we found a significant interaction between social media use and the survey year which indicates that the association between time spent on social media and psychological distress has decreased from 2013 to 2017. Conclusion: Although both social media use and psychological distress increased between 2013 and 2017, the interaction between these variables indicates that the strength of this association has decreased over time. This finding suggests that the higher rate of heavy social media use in 2017 compared to 2013 is not actually associated with the higher rate of serious psychological distress during the same time period. From a diffusion of innovation perspective, it is possible that more recent adopters of social media may be less prone to psychological distress. More research is needed to understand the complex and evolving association between social media use and psychological distress. Researchers attempting to isolate the factors associated with the recent increases in psychological distress could benefit from broadening their investigation to factors beyond time spent on social media.

Ten Myths About the Effect of Social Media Use on Well-Being

This viewpoint reviews the empirical evidence regarding the association between social media use and well-being, including life satisfaction and affective well-being, and the association between social media use and ill-being, including loneliness, anxiety, and depressive symptomology. To frame this discussion, this viewpoint will present 10 widely believed myths about social media, each drawn from popular discourse on the topic. In rebuttal, this viewpoint will offer a warranted claim supported by the research. The goal is to bring popular beliefs into dialogue with state-of-the-art quantitative social scientific evidence. It is the intention of this viewpoint to provide a more accurate and nuanced claim to challenge each myth. This viewpoint will bring attention to the importance of using rigorous scientific evidence to inform public debates about social media use and well-being, especially among adolescents and young adults.

Smartphone interactions and mental well-being in young adults: A longitudinal study based on objective high-resolution smartphone data

Aims: To investigate the effects of objectively measured smartphone interactions on indicators of mental well-being among men and women in a population of young adults. Methods: A total of 816 young adults (mean±SD age 21.6±2.6 years; 77% men) from the Copenhagen Network Study were followed with objective recordings of smartphone interactions from calls, texts and social media. Participants self-reported on loneliness, depressive symptoms and disturbed sleep at baseline and in a four-month (interquartile range 75–163 days) follow-up survey. Multiple linear regression was used to analyse the association between smartphone interactions and mental well-being separately for men and women. Results: A higher number of smartphone interactions was associated with lower levels of loneliness at baseline and the same pattern appeared for depressive symptoms, although this was less pronounced. A high level of smartphone interaction was associated with lower levels of disturbed sleep for men, but not for women. In follow-up analyses, a high versus low level of smartphone interaction was associated with an increase in loneliness and depressive symptoms over time for women, but not for men. Conclusions: Smartphone interactions are related to better mental well-being, which may be attributed to the beneficial effects of an underlying social network. Over time, accommodating a large network via smartphone communication might, however, have negative effects on mental well-being for women.

The Impact of Social Media on Adolescent Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis

Introduction: The proliferation of social media has raised significant concerns about its potential effects on the mental health of adolescents. This meta-analysis aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the existing research on the relationship between social media use and various mental health outcomes in adolescents. Methods: A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science) from January 2018 to June 2024 was conducted to identify relevant studies. Studies were included if they examined the association between social media use and mental health outcomes in adolescents (aged 10-19) and reported quantitative data. Effect sizes were calculated and pooled using random-effects models. Results: A total of 45 studies (N = 153,285 adolescents) met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis revealed small but significant associations between increased social media use and increased depressive symptoms (r = 0.12), anxiety (r = 0.10), and loneliness (r = 0.15). Furthermore, a significant negative association was found between social media use and self-esteem (r = -0.08). The analysis also identified several moderators of these effects, including gender, age, and type of social media platform. Conclusion: The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that increased social media use is associated with a range of negative mental health outcomes in adolescents. However, the effects are small, and the relationship is complex, with several moderating factors. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms underlying these associations and to develop effective interventions to mitigate the potential negative effects of social media on adolescent mental health.

How do social media use, gaming frequency, and internalizing symptoms predict each other over time in early-to-middle adolescence?

Abstract Background The effects of adolescent digital technology use (e.g. social media, gaming) on their mental health are a major public health concern, but existing evidence is of mixed quality and findings have been inconclusive. Methods Separating within-person effects from between-person effects, a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model was applied to three annual waves of data (T1, T2, T3) on social media use, gaming, and internalizing symptoms among N = 25 629 adolescents (51% girls, average age 12 years, 7 months (SD = 3.58 months) at baseline) in Greater Manchester, England. Results Longitudinal relationships varied by gender, such that more frequent gaming at T2 predicted less time spent on social media use at T3 in girls (but not boys), and more frequent internalizing symptoms at T2 predicted reductions in gaming frequency at T3 in boys (but not girls). There was no evidence that time spent on social media or gaming frequency predicted later internalizing symptoms among girls or boys. Sensitivity analyses that distinguished active versus passive social media use replicated these findings. Conclusions The findings of this study do not support the widely held view that adolescent technology use is a major causal factor in their mental health difficulties.

The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent

The question whether social media use benefits or undermines adolescents’ well-being is an important societal concern. Previous empirical studies have mostly established across-the-board effects among (sub)populations of adolescents. As a result, it is still an open question whether the effects are unique for each individual adolescent. We sampled adolescents’ experiences six times per day for one week to quantify differences in their susceptibility to the effects of social media on their momentary affective well-being. Rigorous analyses of 2,155 real-time assessments showed that the association between social media use and affective well-being differs strongly across adolescents: While 44% did not feel better or worse after passive social media use, 46% felt better, and 10% felt worse. Our results imply that person-specific effects can no longer be ignored in research, as well as in prevention and intervention programs.

Reciprocal Relationships between Trajectories of Loneliness and Screen Media Use during Adolescence

Adolescence is the peak period for loneliness. Now a ubiquitous part of the adolescent landscape, electronic screens may provide avenues for ameliorating feelings of loneliness. Conversely, they may act as risk factors for the development of such feelings. Although cross-sectional studies to date have investigated the relationship between screen use and loneliness, longitudinal studies are needed if causal and directional associations are to be investigated. Utilising an accelerated longitudinal design and online survey we collected four waves of data from 1919 secondary school adolescents aged 10–15 years over two years. Random intercept cross-lagged panel models tested whether changes in five types of screen use (i.e., total screen time, social media use, gaming, passive screen use, and web use) are associated with changes in loneliness in the subsequent time-point, or changes in loneliness are associated with changes in screen use in the subsequent time-point. We found significant reciprocal associations between screen use and loneliness, with the strongest associations between social networking and electronic gaming and quality of friendships. These findings highlight that any significant increase in an adolescent’s screen use may be a potential indicator of changes in quality of friendships or feelings of isolation.

Computer-Mediated Communication, Social Media, and Mental Health: A Conceptual and Empirical Meta-Review

Computer-mediated communication (CMC), and specifically social media, may affect the mental health (MH) and well-being of its users, for better or worse. Research on this topic has accumulated rapidly, accompanied by controversial public debate and numerous systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Yet, a higher-level integration of the multiple disparate conceptual and operational approaches to CMC and MH and individual review findings is desperately needed. To this end, we first develop two organizing frameworks that systematize conceptual and operational approaches to CMC and MH. Based on these frameworks, we integrate the literature through a meta-review of 34 reviews and a content analysis of 594 publications. Meta-analytic evidence, overall, suggests a small negative association between social media use and MH. However, effects are complex and depend on the CMC and MH indicators investigated. Based on our conceptual review and the evidence synthesis, we devise an agenda for future research in this interdisciplinary field.

Changing or stable? The effects of adolescents' social media use on psychosocial functioning

Abstract To better understand the effects of social media use on adolescents' psychosocial functioning, this study examined the temporal stability of social media effects across two separate 3-week experience sampling methodology (ESM) studies conducted 6 months apart in 2019 and 2020. Participants were 297 adolescents (M  age = 14.1 years, SD = 0.7, 58.9% girls; 41.1% boys; 0.1% other; 97% Dutch) who completed 126 momentary questionnaires on social media use, affective well-being, self-esteem, and friendship closeness in each of the two ESM studies. The effects of social media on psychosocial functioning had low rank-order stability (r = .05–.25). Findings indicated that the effects of social media use varied not only between individuals but also changed substantially within individuals over time.